सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता(3300-1700 ई.पू.) विश्व की प्राचीन नदी घाटी सभ्यताओं में से एक प्रमुख सभ्यता थी। यह हड़प्पा सभ्यता और सिंधु-सरस्वती सभ्यता के नाम से भी जानी जाती है। इसका विकास सिंधु और घघ्घर/हकड़ा (प्राचीन सरस्वती) के किनारे हुआ। मोहनजोदड़ो, कालीबंगा , लोथल् , धोलावीरा , राखीगरी , और हड़प्पा इसके प्रमुख केन्द्र थें। ब्रिटिश काल में हुई खुदाइयों के आधार पर पुरातत्ववेत्ता और इतिहासकारों का अनुमान है कि यह अत्यंत विकसित सभ्यता थी और ये शहर अनेक बार बसे और उजड़े हैं। चार्ल्स मैसेन ने पहली बार इस पुरानी सभ्यता को खोजा। कनिंघम ने 1872 में इस सभ्यता के बारे मे सर्वेक्षण किया। फ्लीट ने इस पुरानी सभ्यता के बारे मे एक लेख लिखा। 1921 में दयाराम साहनी ने हड़प्पा का उत्खनन किया। इस प्रकार इस सभ्यता का नाम हड़प्पा सभ्यता रखा गया। यह सभ्यता सिन्धु नदी घाटी मे फैली हुई थी इसलिए इसका नाम सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता रखा गया। प्रथम बार नगरों के उदय के कारण इसे प्रथम नगरीकरण भी कहा जाता है प्रथम बार कांस्य के प्रयोग के कारण इसे कांस्य सभ्यता भी कहा जाता है। सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता के 1400 केन्द्रों को खोजा जा सका है जिसमें से 925 केन्द्र भारत में है। 80 प्रतिशत्त स्थल सरस्वती नदी और उसकी सहायक नदियो के आस-पास है। अभी तक कुल खोजों में से 3 प्रतिशत स्थलों का ही उत्खनन हो पाया है।
सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता का एक प्रमुख नगर अवशेष, जिसकी खोज 1922 ईस्वी मे राखाल दास बनर्जी ने की। यह नगर अवशेष सिन्धु नदी के किनारे सक्खर जिले में स्थित है। मोहन जोदड़ो शब्द का सही उच्चारण है 'मोअन जो दड़ो'। सिन्धी भाषा में इसका अर्थ है - मृतको का टीला।
मोहन जोदड़ो- (सिंधी:موئن جو دڙو और उर्दू में अमोमअ मोहनजोदउड़ो भी) वादी सिंध की क़दीम तहज़ीब का एक मरकज़ था। ये लाड़ काना से बीस किलोमीटर दूर और सिखर से 80 किलोमीटर जनूब मग़रिब में वाक़िअ है। ये वादी सिंध के एक और अहम मरकज़ हड़पह से 400 मेल दूर है ये शहर 2600 क़बल मसीह मौजूद था और 1700 क़बल मसीह में नामालूम वजूहात की बिना पर ख़त्म हो गया।ताहम माहिरीन के ख़्याल में दरयाऐ सिंध के रख की तबदीली, सैलाब, बैरूनी हमला आवर या ज़लज़ला अहम वजूहात हो सकती हैं।
मोिन जो दड़ओ- को 1922ए में बर्तानवी माहिर आसार क़दीमा सर जान मार्शल ने दरयाफ़त क्या और इन की गाड़ी आज भी मोिन जो दड़ओ- के अजायब ख़ाने की ज़ीनत है।
लेकिन एक मकतबा फ़िक्र ऐसा भी है जो इस तास्सुर को ग़लत समझता है और इस का कहना है कि उसे ग़ैर मुनक़िसम हिंदूस्तान के माहिर आसार क़दीमा आर के भिंडर ने 1911ए में दरयाफ़त क्या था। मोिन जो दड़ओ- कनज़रवेशन सेल के साबिक़ डायरेक्टर हाकिम शाह बुख़ारी का कहना है कि"आर के भिंडर ने बुध मत के मुक़ामि मुक़द्दस की हैसीयत से इस जगह की तारीख़ी हैसीयत की जानिब तवज्जा मबज़ूल करवाई, जिस के लग भग एक अशरऐ बाद सर जान मार्शल यहां आए और उन्हों ने इस जगह खुदाई शुरू करवाई।"
मोिन जो दड़ओ- सिंधी ज़बान का लफ्ज़ है जिस का मतलब मुरदों का टीला है।
ये शहर बड़ी तरतीब से बसा हुआ था। इस शहर की गलियां खुली और सीधी थीं और पानी की निकासी का मुनासिब इंतिज़ाम था। अंदाज़अ इस में 35000 के क़रीब लोग रिहाइश पज़ीर थे।
माहिरीन के मुताबिक ये शहर 7 मरत्तबा उजड़ा और दुबारा बसाया गया जिस की अहम तरीन वजह दरयाऐ सिंध का सैलाब था।
ये शहर अक़वाम मुतहदा के इदारा बराए तालीम, साईंस ओ- सक़ाफ़त योनीसको की जानिब से आलमी विरसा क़रार दिए गए मुक़ामात में शामिल हऐ
One of the most fascinating yet mysterious cultures of the ancient world is the Harappan civilization. This culture existed along the Indus River in present day Pakistan. It was named after the city of Harappa which it was centered around. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization. These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout. Over one hundred other towns and villages also existed in this region. The Harappan people were literate and used the Dravidian language. Only part of this language has been deciphered today, leaving numerous questions about this civilization unanswered.
Artifacts and clues discovered at Mohenjo-Daro have allowed archaeologists to reconstruct this civilization. The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization. Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks. The two cities may have existed simultaneously and their sizes suggest that they served as capitals of their provinces. In contrast to other civilizations, burials found from these cities are not magnificent; they are more simplistic and contain few material goods. This evidence suggests that this civilization did not have social classes. Remains of palaces or temples in the cities have not been found. No hard evidence exists indicating military activity; it is likely that the Harappans were a peaceful civilization. The cities did contain fortifications and the people used copper and bronze knives, spears, and arrowheads.
The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile. Inhabitants of the Indus valley traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and turquoise. The Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture was used to take advantage of the fertile grounds along the Indus River. Earthlinks were built to control the river's annual flooding. Crops grown included wheat, barley, peas, melons, and sesame. This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated including the elephant which was used for its ivory.
Most of the artwork from this civilization was small and used as personal possessions. The first objects unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were small stone seals. These seals were inscribed with elegant portrayals of real and imagined animals and were marked with the Indus script writing. The seals suggest a symbolic or religious intent. Stone sculptures carved in steatite, limestone, or alabaster depict a male figure who may have represented a god. Pottery figures were shaped into humans and animals. Very few bronze figures have been recovered.
The Harappan civilization experienced its height around 2500 BC and began to decline about 2000 BC. The causes of its downfall are not certain. One theory suggests that theAryan people migrated into this area. Aryan religious texts and human remains in Mohenjo-Daro suggest that the Aryans may have violently entered the area, killing its inhabitants and burning the cities.
However, another theory supported by more recent evidence suggests that this civilization may have begun to decline before the Aryans arrived. The inhabitants of the Indus valley dispersed before the Aryans slowly entered the area as a nomadic people. The Aryans were then able to take over this area since most of the inhabitants had previously left. One cause of the dispersal of the Harappans could have been a result of agricultural problems. Topsoil erosion, depletion of nutrients from the soil, or a change in the course of the Indus River may have forced these people to leave their towns and move northeastward in search of more fertile land.
Main points
मोहन जोदड़ो
सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता का एक प्रमुख नगर अवशेष, जिसकी खोज 1922 ईस्वी मे राखाल दास बनर्जी ने की। यह नगर अवशेष सिन्धु नदी के किनारे सक्खर जिले में स्थित है। मोहन जोदड़ो शब्द का सही उच्चारण है 'मोअन जो दड़ो'। सिन्धी भाषा में इसका अर्थ है - मृतको का टीला।
मोहन जोदड़ो- (सिंधी:موئن جو دڙو और उर्दू में अमोमअ मोहनजोदउड़ो भी) वादी सिंध की क़दीम तहज़ीब का एक मरकज़ था। ये लाड़ काना से बीस किलोमीटर दूर और सिखर से 80 किलोमीटर जनूब मग़रिब में वाक़िअ है। ये वादी सिंध के एक और अहम मरकज़ हड़पह से 400 मेल दूर है ये शहर 2600 क़बल मसीह मौजूद था और 1700 क़बल मसीह में नामालूम वजूहात की बिना पर ख़त्म हो गया।ताहम माहिरीन के ख़्याल में दरयाऐ सिंध के रख की तबदीली, सैलाब, बैरूनी हमला आवर या ज़लज़ला अहम वजूहात हो सकती हैं।
मोिन जो दड़ओ- को 1922ए में बर्तानवी माहिर आसार क़दीमा सर जान मार्शल ने दरयाफ़त क्या और इन की गाड़ी आज भी मोिन जो दड़ओ- के अजायब ख़ाने की ज़ीनत है।
लेकिन एक मकतबा फ़िक्र ऐसा भी है जो इस तास्सुर को ग़लत समझता है और इस का कहना है कि उसे ग़ैर मुनक़िसम हिंदूस्तान के माहिर आसार क़दीमा आर के भिंडर ने 1911ए में दरयाफ़त क्या था। मोिन जो दड़ओ- कनज़रवेशन सेल के साबिक़ डायरेक्टर हाकिम शाह बुख़ारी का कहना है कि"आर के भिंडर ने बुध मत के मुक़ामि मुक़द्दस की हैसीयत से इस जगह की तारीख़ी हैसीयत की जानिब तवज्जा मबज़ूल करवाई, जिस के लग भग एक अशरऐ बाद सर जान मार्शल यहां आए और उन्हों ने इस जगह खुदाई शुरू करवाई।"
मोिन जो दड़ओ- सिंधी ज़बान का लफ्ज़ है जिस का मतलब मुरदों का टीला है।
ये शहर बड़ी तरतीब से बसा हुआ था। इस शहर की गलियां खुली और सीधी थीं और पानी की निकासी का मुनासिब इंतिज़ाम था। अंदाज़अ इस में 35000 के क़रीब लोग रिहाइश पज़ीर थे।
माहिरीन के मुताबिक ये शहर 7 मरत्तबा उजड़ा और दुबारा बसाया गया जिस की अहम तरीन वजह दरयाऐ सिंध का सैलाब था।
ये शहर अक़वाम मुतहदा के इदारा बराए तालीम, साईंस ओ- सक़ाफ़त योनीसको की जानिब से आलमी विरसा क़रार दिए गए मुक़ामात में शामिल हऐ
लोथल
गुजरात में लोथल की अवस्थिति
लोथल (गुजराती: લોથલ), प्राचीन सिंधु घाटी सभ्यताके शहरों में से एक बहुत ही महत्वपूर्ण शहर है। लगभग 2400 ईसापूर्व पुराना यह शहर भारत के राज्य गुजरातके भाल क्षेत्र में स्थित है और इसकी खोज सन 1954 में हुई थी। भारतीय पुरातत्व सर्वेक्षण ने इस शहर की खुदाई 13 फरवरी 1955 से लेकर 19 मई 1956 के मध्य की थी। लोथल, अहमदाबाद जिले के ढोलका तालुका के गाँवसरागवाला के निकट स्थित है। अहमदाबाद-भावनगररेलवे लाइन के स्टेशन लोथल भुरखी से यह दक्षिण पूर्व दिशा में 6 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है। लोथल अहमदाबाद, राजकोट, भावनगर और ढोलका शहरों से पक्की सड़क द्वारा जुड़ा है जिनमें से सबसे करीबी शहर ढोलका और बगोदरा हैं।
लोथल गोदी जो कि विश्व की प्राचीनतम ज्ञात गोदी है,सिंध में स्थित हड़प्पा के शहरों और सौराष्ट्र प्रायद्वीप के बीच बहने वाली साबरमती नदी की प्राचीन धारा के द्वारा शहर से जुड़ी थी, जो इन स्थानों के मध्य एक व्यापार मार्ग था। उस समय इसके आसपास का कच्छका मरुस्थल, अरब सागर का एक हिस्सा था। प्राचीन समय में यह एक महत्वपूर्ण और संपन्न व्यापार केंद्र था जहाँ से मोती, जवाहरात और कीमती गहने पश्चिम एशिया और अफ्रीका के सुदूर कोनों तक भेजे जाते थे। मनकों को बनाने की तकनीक और उपकरणों का समुचित विकास हो चुका था और यहाँ का धातु विज्ञान पिछले 4000 साल से भी अधिक से समय की कसौटी पर खरा उतरा था।
1961 में भारतीय पुराततव सर्वेक्षण ने खुदाई का कार्य फिर से शुरु किया और टीले के पूर्वी और पश्चिमी पक्षों की खुदाई के दौरान उन वाहिकाओं और नालों को खोद निकाला जो नदी के द्वारा गोदी से जुड़े थे। प्रमुख खोजों में एक टीला, एक नगर, एक बाज़ार स्थल और एक गोदी शामिल है। उत्खनन स्थल के पास ही एक पुरात्तत्व संग्रहालय स्थित हैं जिसमें सिंधु घाटी से प्राप्त वस्तुएं प्रदर्शित की गयी हैं।
Chanhudaro
Chanhudaro (also Chanhu Daro) is an archaeological site belonging to the post-urban Jhukar phase of Indus valley civilization. The site is located 130 kilometers (81 mi) south of Mohenjodaro, in Sindh, Pakistan. The settlement was inhabited between 4000-1700 BCE, and is considered to have been a centre for manufacturing carnelian beads. This site is a group of three low mounds that excavations has shown were parts of a single settlement, approximately 5 hectares in size.
Chanhudaro was first excavated by Nani Gopal Majumdar in March, 1930 and again during winter field session of 1935-36 by the American School of Indic and Iranian Studies and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston team led by Ernest John Henry Mackay.[1] After the independence of Pakistan,Mohammed Rafique Mughal also did exploratory work in the area.
Harappan Civilization
ca. 3000-1500 BC
One of the most fascinating yet mysterious cultures of the ancient world is the Harappan civilization. This culture existed along the Indus River in present day Pakistan. It was named after the city of Harappa which it was centered around. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization. These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout. Over one hundred other towns and villages also existed in this region. The Harappan people were literate and used the Dravidian language. Only part of this language has been deciphered today, leaving numerous questions about this civilization unanswered.
Artifacts and clues discovered at Mohenjo-Daro have allowed archaeologists to reconstruct this civilization. The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization. Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks. The two cities may have existed simultaneously and their sizes suggest that they served as capitals of their provinces. In contrast to other civilizations, burials found from these cities are not magnificent; they are more simplistic and contain few material goods. This evidence suggests that this civilization did not have social classes. Remains of palaces or temples in the cities have not been found. No hard evidence exists indicating military activity; it is likely that the Harappans were a peaceful civilization. The cities did contain fortifications and the people used copper and bronze knives, spears, and arrowheads.
The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile. Inhabitants of the Indus valley traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and turquoise. The Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture was used to take advantage of the fertile grounds along the Indus River. Earthlinks were built to control the river's annual flooding. Crops grown included wheat, barley, peas, melons, and sesame. This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated including the elephant which was used for its ivory.
Most of the artwork from this civilization was small and used as personal possessions. The first objects unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were small stone seals. These seals were inscribed with elegant portrayals of real and imagined animals and were marked with the Indus script writing. The seals suggest a symbolic or religious intent. Stone sculptures carved in steatite, limestone, or alabaster depict a male figure who may have represented a god. Pottery figures were shaped into humans and animals. Very few bronze figures have been recovered.The Harappan civilization experienced its height around 2500 BC and began to decline about 2000 BC. The causes of its downfall are not certain. One theory suggests that theAryan people migrated into this area. Aryan religious texts and human remains in Mohenjo-Daro suggest that the Aryans may have violently entered the area, killing its inhabitants and burning the cities.
However, another theory supported by more recent evidence suggests that this civilization may have begun to decline before the Aryans arrived. The inhabitants of the Indus valley dispersed before the Aryans slowly entered the area as a nomadic people. The Aryans were then able to take over this area since most of the inhabitants had previously left. One cause of the dispersal of the Harappans could have been a result of agricultural problems. Topsoil erosion, depletion of nutrients from the soil, or a change in the course of the Indus River may have forced these people to leave their towns and move northeastward in search of more fertile land.
Banawali |
Harappan civilization found in Harayana include Balu, Siswal, Mitathal, Bhagwanpura and Rakhigrahi... |
Like Dholavira in Gujarat, the Harappan site of Banawali in Harayana tells us the interesting story of how a small village turned into a town and then declined. No river flows past Banawali today, but there is dry bed of a river known by several names - Rangoi, Sottar, Nali, and Nadi. At one time it must have been a good source of water for the people who lived here.  We do not know just how big the settlement at Banawali was in the beginning (archaeologists call this first stage Period I). This is because only a small part of it was excavated. The houses were laid out neatly in either north-south or east-west arrangement. They usually made of sun-dried mud bricks, but some of them were made of bricks baked in kilns. Inside the houses archaeologists found mud ovens (chulas) where people did their cooking. There were other deeper pits with plastered walls, which may have been used to store food grains. Pots with different designs on them were made and used. One pot had a design that looked like a horned animal. Another had what looked like a cart with a canopy over it. The other things that were found were a stone weight, and an arrow-head and fish-hook made of copper. There were also beads made of clay, bone, a stone called steatite and semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli and carnelian. Bangles were made of shell, clay, and faience (this was usually made out of crushed quartz stone mixed with a little lime).At some point of time, in about 2300 B.C. or so, the settlement at Banawali became a town with a new lay-out. The town had two parts-a citadel area and a lower town. In some other cities of the Harappan civilization the citadel and the lower town are separate from each other. But at Banawali both these sections are located in the same area, although there was wall that separated the two. The citadel was built at a higher, more prominent level than the rest of the city. This showed off its importance. The wall of the citadel had bastions-towers from which guards could keep a watch on who was coming and going. There was ramp made of bricks leading from the lower town in to the citadel. The whole city was surrounded by strong walls, and the walls were surrounded by a moat for added protection.
It is visitor came into Banawali though the eastern gateway, she would find herself in a wide open space from where three streets branched off in different directions into the city. Inside the city there were some big houses where rich people must have lived. These houses had a central courtyard, with several rooms built all around. The floors of the rooms were sometimes paved with bricks. The bricks were bigger that those used in the earlier period. Bricks backed in kilns were usually reserved for places where some kinds of water-proofing was useful-for wells, pavements of bathrooms and drains. Otherwise, sun-dried bricks were used.  One of the houses had many rooms, including a kitchen and a bathroom. Inside the bathroom there was a large pottery jar that seemed to function as a wash basin. There was a drain nearby, which led the used water into a large refuse jar outside the street. Lots of seals and weights were found in this house, so we can guess that it must have belonged to a rich merchant. Another house seems to have belonged to a jeweler. Many beautiful beads made of materials like gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian were found in it. Some tiny weights were also discovered. Particularly interesting was the discovery of a 'touchstone.' Jewellers rub gold against such a stone to test whether it is pure or not. The stone found in this house had streaks of gold on it, which gave the clue that this is what it was used for.Many of the things found at Banawali were similar to those found at other sites of the Harappan civilization. These include seals with the Harappan scripts. Interestingly, the seals were only found in the lower town and not in the citadel. We know that some of the seals must have been used by traders. Does this mean that only the people who lived in the lower town were involved in trade? We are not sure. Blades made of stone have also been found. Terracotta figurines, many of them what seems to have been a goddess, have also been found. Terracotta is a hard-baked reddish-brown clay. Small pieces made out of stone, ivory and bone that seem to have been used to play games with (archaeologists call them 'gamesmen') were also found. One of the most important things found at Banawali was a clay model of a plough. This shows that the people of Banawali were similar with the use of this implement. The actual ploughs used by them must have been made of wood, and have not survived. We are not sure what led to the end of town-life in Banawali. But we do know that the site was deserted for some time. And then, after some time, people moved into the area and settled down to the east of the old city. But their way of life was rather different from the life of the city-dwellers who had lived here before. The town planning, the fortification, the seals, writing... all these things had disappeared. The new houses were made of mud, not bricks. Fewer artifacts have been found from this phase. But some craftsmen were still active. New kinds of pottery with different sorts of designs were being made. Some of the craftsmen of Banawali seem to have specialized in the making of ornaments made of faience. Lots of beads, rings, earrings, bangles, and anklets of this period have been found. Other sites of the Harappan civilization found in Harayana include Balu, Siswal, Mitathal, Bhagwanpura, and Rakhigrahi. Remains of the Harappan civilization have also been found in the western part of Uttar Pradesh. All these sites show us how far eastwards the Harappan civilization had spread. Archaeologists are still working out the story of how and why the Harappan civilization declined. How and why did flourishing cites and towns fade away and make way for village life? What happened to the brisk trade that the Harappan carried on with various parts of the country and with foreign lands? And what happened to their system of writing? The evidence from excavations at more and more Harappan sites might give us a clearer idea about the answers to these puzzles. | ||
Main points
Harrappan/ Indus Civilization (2500 BC-1750 BC) | |
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https://feeriee13artoholik.blogspot.com/2015/06/blog-post.html?showComment=1600167874873#c1525950465445049686
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